Medicine in Ancient Egypt

The medicine of the ancient Egyptians is some of the oldest documented. From the beginnings of the civilization in the late fourth millennium BC until the Persian invasion of 525 BC, Egyptian medical practice went largely unchanged but was highly advanced for its time, including simple non-invasive surgery, setting of bones, dentistry, and an extensive set of pharmacopoeia. Egyptian medical thought influenced later traditions, including the Greeks.

EBERS PAPYRUS (about Cancer)

Pharmacology

Like many civilizations in the past, the ancient Egyptians discovered the medicinal properties of plant life around them. In the Edwin Smith Papyrus there are many recipes to help heal different ailments. In a small section of this papyrus, there are five recipes one dealing with problems women may have had, three on techniques for refining the complexion, and the fifth recipe for ailments that deal with the colon. Ancient Egyptians were known to use honey as medicine, and the juices of pomegranates served as both an astringent and a delicacy. In the "Ebers Papyrus", there are over 800 remedies; some were topical like ointments, and wrappings, others were oral medication such as pastes and mouth rinses; still others were taken through inhalation. The recipes to cure constipation consisted of berries from the castor oil tree, Male Palm, and Gengent beans, just to name a few. Many more other recipes were to help headaches called for "inner-of-onion", fruit-of-the-am-tree, natron, setseft-seeds, bone-of-the-swordfish cooked, redfish cooked, skull-of-crayfish cooked, honey, and many other ointment. 

Some of the recommended treatments have been made with cannabis and incense. Egyptian medicinal use of plants in antiquity is known to be extensive, with some 160 distinct plant products. Amidst the many plant extracts and fruits, the Egyptians also used animal feces and even some metals as treatments. These prescriptions of antiquity were measured out by volume, not weight, which makes their prescription making craft more like cooking than what Pharmacists do today. While their treatments and herbal remedies seem almost boundless, they still included incantations along with some therapeutic remedies.

Practices

Edwin Smith Papyrus documents

Ancient Egyptian medicine, 

including the diagnosis and

treatment of injuries.

Ancient Egyptian medical instruments are depicted in a Ptolemaic period inscription on the Temple of Kom Ombo.

Medical knowledge in ancient Egypt had an excellent reputation. Rulers of other empires would ask the Egyptian pharaoh to send them their best physician to treat their loved ones. Egyptians had some knowledge of human anatomy. For example, in the classic mummification process, mummifiers knew how to insert a long hooked implement through a nostril, breaking the thin bone of the skull and removing the brain. They also had a general idea about inner organs in the body cavity. They removed the organs through a small incision in the left groin. Whether this knowledge was passed down to the practitioners is unknown; yet it did not seem to have had any impact on their medical theories.

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN
SURGERY TOOLS

Egyptian physicians were aware of the existence of the pulse and its connection to the heart. The author of the Smith Papyrus even had a vague idea of the cardiac system. He did not know about blood circulation and did not   distinguish between blood vessels, tendons, and nerves. He developed a theory of "channels" that carried air, water, and blood to the body by analogies with the River Nile; if it became blocked, crops became unhealthy. They applied this principle to the body: If a person were unwell, they would use laxatives to unblock the channels.

The oldest written text mentioning enemas is the Ebers Papyrus and many medications were administered using enemas. One of the many types of medical specialists was an "Iri", the Shepherd of the Anus.

Many of their medical practices were effective, such as the surgical procedures given in the Edwin Smith papyrus. Mostly, the physician's advice for staying healthy was to wash and shave the body, including under the arms, to prevent infections. They also advised patients to look after their diet, and avoid foods such as raw fish or other animals considered to be unclean.

In 1963 Dr. Paul Ghalioungui M.D, Author, Egyptologist and an authority on Pharaonic medicine found that, whilst urine from non-pregnant women prevented the growth of (modern) barley and wheat, it proved impossible to detect the sex of an unborn child from the rate of growth of either grain. Nevertheless, the fact that the Egyptians recognized that urine carried the pregnancy factor was remarkable. The standardization of reliable urine tests for pregnancy did not occur until 1929. Dr. Ghalioungui also wrote that Egyptians “were the first in History to dare look at the other side of the abyss that separates magic from Medicine”

Surgery

DEPICTION OF SURGICAL
TOOLS ON TEMPLE
IN KOM-OMBO

The oldest metal (Bronze or Copper) surgical tools in the world were discovered in the tomb of Qar. Surgery was a common practice among physicians as treatment for physical injuries. The Egyptian physicians recognized three categories of injuries; treatable, contestable, and untreatable ailments. Treatable ailments the surgeons would quickly set to right. Contestable ailments were those where the victim could presumably survive without treatment, so patients assumed to be in this category were observed and if they survived then surgical attempts could be made to fix the problem with them. They used knives, hooks, drills, forceps, pincers, scales, spoons, saws and a vase with burning incense.

Circumcision of males was  normal practice, as stated by Herodotus in his Histories. Though its performance as a procedure was rarely mentioned, the uncircumcised nature of other cultures was frequently noted, the uncircumcised nature of the Liberians was frequently referenced and military campaigns brought back uncircumcised phallus as trophies, which suggests novelty. However, other records describe initiates into the religious orders as involving circumcision that would imply that the practice was special and not widespread. The only known depiction of the procedure, in The Tomb of the Physician, burial place of Ankh-Mahor at Saqqara, shows adolescents or adults, not babies.

AN ARTIFICIAL TOE

Prosthetics, such as artificial toes and eyeballs, were also used; typically, they served little more than decorative purposes or used in preparation for burial, missing body parts would be replaced; however, these do not appear as if they would have been useful, or even attachable, before death.

The extensive use of surgery, mummification practices, and autopsy as a religious exercise gave Egyptians a vast knowledge of the body's morphology, and even a considerable understanding of organ functions. The function of most major organs was correctly presumed for example, blood was correctly guessed to be a transpiration medium for vitality and waste which is not too far from its actual role in carrying oxygen and removing carbon dioxide—with the exception of the heart and brain whose functions were switched.

Dentistry

DENTISTRY

Dentistry was an important field, as an independent profession it dated from the early 3rd millennium BC, although it may never have been prominent   The Egyptian diet was high in abrasives from sand left over from grinding grain and bits of rocks in which the way bread was prepared, and so the condition of their teeth was poor. Archaeologists have noted a steady decrease in severity and incidence of worn teeth throughout 4000 BC to 1000 AD, probably due to improved grain grinding techniques. 


All Egyptian remains have sets of teeth in quite poor states   Dental disease could even be fatal, such as for Djedmaatesankh, a musician from Thebes, who died around the age of thirty five from extensive dental disease and a large infected cyst. Cavities were rare, due to the rarity of sweeteners   Dental treatment was ineffective and the best sufferers could hope for, was the quick loss of an infected tooth. The Instruction of Ankhsheshonq contains the maxim "There is no tooth that rots yet stays in place”. No  documented records talk about the hastening of this process and no tools suited for the extraction of teeth have been found, though some remains show sign of forced tooth removal. Replacement teeth have been found, although it is not clear whether they are just post-mortem cosmetics. Extreme pain might have been medicated with opium.

Doctors and other healers

The ancient Egyptian word for doctor is "swnw". This title has a long history. The earliest recorded physician in the world, Hesy-Ra, practiced in ancient Egypt. He was "Chief of Dentists and Physicians" to King Djoser, who ruled in the 27th century BC.

There were many ranks and specializations in the field of medicine. Royalty employed their own swnw, even their own specialists. There were inspectors of doctors, overseers and chief doctors. Known ancient Egyptian specialists are ophthalmologist, gastroenterologist, proctologist, dentist, "doctor who supervises butchers" and an unspecified "inspector of liquids". The ancient Egyptian term for proctologist, "neru phuyt", literally translates as "shepherd of the anus". Irynachet, already attests the latter title around 2200 BC.

Institutions, called (Per Ankh) or Houses of Life, are known to have been established in ancient Egypt since the 1st Dynasty and may have had medical functions, being at times associated in inscriptions with physicians, such as Peftauawyneit and Wedjahorresnet living in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. By the time of the 19th Dynasty their employees enjoyed such benefits as medical insurance, pensions and sick leave.

Most information gathered from the internet

SENET

Gaming Board for Amenhotep III with Separate Sliding Drawer, 
ca. 1390-1353 B.C.E.

SENET is a board game from ancient Egypt, whose original rules are the subject of conjecture. The oldest hieroglyph resembling a SENET game dates to around 3100 BC. The name of the game in Egyptian is thought to mean the "game of passing".

SENET is one of the oldest known board games. Fragmentary boards that could be SENET have been found in First Dynasty burials in Egypt, c. 3100 BC. A hieroglyph resembling a SENET board appears in the tomb of Merknera (3300–2700 BC). The first unequivocal painting of this ancient game is from the Third Dynasty tomb of Hesy (c. 2686–2613 BC). People are depicted playing SENET in a painting in the tomb of Rashepes, as well as from other tombs of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties (c. 2500 BC). The oldest intact SENET boards date to the Middle Kingdom, but graffiti on Fifth and Sixth Dynasty monuments could date as early as the Old Kingdom.

SENET GAME

At least by the time of the New Kingdom in Egypt (1550–1077 BC), SENET was conceived as a representation of the journey of the "ka" (the vital spark) to the afterlife. 

This connection is made in the Great Game Text, which appears in a number of papyri, as well as the appearance of markings of religious significance on SENET boards themselves. The game is also referred to in chapter XVII of the ancient Book of the Dead.

People in neighbouring cultures also played SENET, and it probably came to those places through trade relationships between Egyptians and local peoples. It has been found in the Levant at sites such as Byblos, as well as in Cyprus. Because of the local practice of making games out of stone, there are more SENET games that have been found in Cyprus than have been found in Egypt.

        Senet pawns

The SENET game board is a grid of 30 squares, arranged in three rows of ten. A SENET board has two sets of pawns (at least five of each). Although details of the original game rules are a subject of debate, SENET historians Timothy Kendall and R. C. Bell have made their own reconstructions of the game. These rules are based on snippets of texts that span over a thousand years, over which time gameplay is likely to have changed. Therefore, it is unlikely these rules reflect the actual course of ancient Egyptian gameplay. Their rules have been adopted by sellers of modern SENET sets.

Watercolour copy of an ancient painting depicting Queen Nefertari playing SENET. Original in Egypt, Thebes, Valley of the Queens, Tomb of Nefertari; reign of Ramesses II (ca. 1279–1213 B.C.). Watercolour copy painted in 1921–22 by Nina de Garis Davies (1881–1965), a member of the Egyptian Expedition of The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Tempera on paper, 17 x 18 1/8 in. (43 x 46 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Seems SENET was a very popular board game in ancient Egypt. Queens like Nefertari may have played it using a game box, while ancient Egyptians who were less wealthy may have played on a grid scratched into the floor. 

SENET game board pawns pieces

The original tiles and fragments were found in an ancient Egyptian tomb along with game pieces shaped like cones and spools. They are made of "faience", a ceramic material that was often produced in a blue or blue-green colour that symbolized life, most "scarabs" found in ancient Egypt have this distinguish colour. Conservators have filled in missing tiles and parts of tiles with modern material. You can see the difference, because the colour of the original faience appears darker while the modern ceramic material is a lighter blue. The conservators also used modern wood to reconstruct the box that held the tiles.

Playing SENET

Bird's eye view of the SENET game board

Two players determined their moves by throwing casting sticks or bones. A game piece started at square 1 on the upper left and zig-zagged across each row and down to the next, until it crossed square 30 on the bottom right. Each player could make moves to advance a piece and pass other pieces on the board. Each player could also block other pieces from moving forward or force their opponent backwards.

The last five squares (squares 26–30) are usually decorated. On the board to the right, two marked squares are preserved and a third one is fragmentary. Square 26 is usually marked with the sign for "good" (nefer). Landing in this special square gave the player a free turn. It seems that the players had to reach this sign before they could move on to win the game. Square 27 on this SENET board depicts a water hazard. If a game piece landed on this special square, it was removed from the grid before it could cross the final square on the bottom right. Players competed to cross the final square with all of their pieces.

Game boxes and depictions of SENET are found in a number of tombs. King Tutankhamun was buried with no fewer than five game boxes. The ancient Egyptians believed in an afterlife, which means an existence after death. To reach the afterlife, a person who died had to perform certain rituals and pass many obstacles. In the New Kingdom, the game SENET, became associated with the journey to the afterlife. Some of the squares of the game corresponded to the hazards a person might meet on their journey to the afterlife, while other squares helped the players. Because of this connection, SENET was not just a game; it was also a symbol for the struggle to obtain immortality, or endless life.

SENET Board on a Clay Tablet

Instruction for playing SENET
_________________________

Information gathered from internet articles and different sources.

CUMIN

* (cuminum cyminum) seeds are native to the Mediterranean region and eastward into India. Cumin is a member of the parsley family. The ancient Egyptians who called it “tpnn” used cumin a lot. Ancient Egyptian king Rameses III offered gifts of cumin to the god Ra at Heliopolis. 

Several grains of ancient cumin are available for inspection at the Agricultural Museum in Dokki, Cairo and in the museum of Florence, Italy.

Cumin Seeds

The ancient Egyptians used cumin to treat gastro-intestinal disease, to expel intestinal parasites, and cumin was included in different medicinal recipes for mouth rinses, suppositories, and ear instillations. Cumin seed is listed in Biblical texts in both the Old and New Testaments. It was said in ancient Greece that if one planted coriander, during the sowing process it must be cursed – if the crop was to be abundant. Medieval healers recommended cumin seeds mixed with barley then boiled in wine as a general cure-all.

According to Keimer, Egyptian cumin (Cuminum cyminum) is different from the European cumin, Carum carvi, From the fact that the Egyptian name “tpjin”, preserved in Coptic “tapen”, is different from the Semitic names of the plant, one could conclude that the Arabs introduced the Semitic appellation kammoun when they invaded Egypt.

Cumin Plantation

The Roman epicurean Apicius reported that the Egyptians of his time used cumin when they cooked marrows and grilled fish. The Roman writer Pliny highly recommended cumin and wrote: Yet of all the seasonings that gratify a fastidious taste, cumin is the most agreeable. Pliny also mentioned that cumin mixed with water commonly was used to treat stomachache. In modern Egypt crushed cumin added to water and medicinal teas is used to treat colic and indigestion, and may be offered to pregnant and recently delivered women.

The Cumin Plant

Ancient Indian Ayurvedic medical texts report that cumin seeds are crushed and prepared as decoctions, sometimes fermented, and may be prepared as pills and mixed with ghee (clarified butter). Such preparations are used to enhance appetite, digestion, lactation, and taste perception. The medicinal use of these cumin-based pills is extended to treat conditions such as appetite loss, diarrhea, and fever. Several recent Indian medical journal reports claim that cumin contains anti-diabetic properties and that consumption improves secretion of saliva.

The Gerarde herbal reports says: cumin seeds scattereth and breaketh all the windiness of the stomachs, belly, guts, and matrix [uterus]; prepared as a broth cumin seeds are good for the chest and cold lungs; when mixed with vinegar and smelled, will stop nosebleeds.

Cumin Flowers

In the Mediterranean and Near Eastern countries, sweetening agents, jams, sweet jellies, or fruits, are not generally eaten with meats or cooked dishes, as they are in northern Europe or America. But spices are used more freely. Speaking in a rather schematic way, mint, oregano, thyme and laurel prevail in Greece; fennel, laurel, tarragon in Southern France; coriander, cumin and black pepper in Egypt; hot peppers in the Sudan and Congo; cardamom and saffron in the Arabian Peninsula; while pine seeds, raisins, pistachio nuts and almonds are often added to rice or to stuffing in Syria and the Lebanon.

A mixture of spices coriander and cumin, along with toasted nuts, salt and garlic was used to sweeten the coarse bread of daily life in ancient Egypt. That tradition lives on today in the Dukkah, a popular spice blend that modern Egyptians enjoy just as their ancestors did thousands of years ago.

The Plant & Seeds

Follow the recipe for Dukkah below to bring a taste of ancient Egypt into your own kitchen. It can be used as a condiment for roasted meat, as a topping for hummus or as a dip with crusty bread.

Ingredients

1-cup whole shelled hazelnuts

1-cup whole shelled almonds

1-tablespoon whole coriander seeds

1-tablespoon whole cumin seeds

1/4-cup whole sesame seeds

1/4-teaspoon salt

Preparation

1.   Preheat the oven to 350 F.

2.   On a baking sheet lined with parchment paper, spread the sesame seeds out in a single layer.

3.   Roast in the oven for about 2 to 3 minutes. Remove from the oven and set aside to cool.

4.   Place the hazelnuts and almonds on the same baking sheet and roast in the oven for about 5 minutes.

5.   Remove and combine with the toasted sesame seeds.

6.   Combine the sesame seeds, hazelnuts, almonds, coriander seeds, cumin seeds and salt, in a food processor and grind for 2 to 4 minutes.

7.   Store in an airtight container.

Dokka on Crust

ErkSous

The History of Licorice

Licorice is not a recent discovery. The ancient Egyptians used it as a pharmaceutical, and copious supplies were found in King Tut’s tomb. Egyptian hieroglyphics record the use of licorice as a popular beverage among the men of the time.

Manuscripts from 360 A.D. talk of licorice helping eye ailments, skin diseases, coughs, and loss of hair. Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar are on record as endorsing the benefits of eating licorice. Since the 14th century, it has been used to soothe coughs, colds, and bronchitis.

LICORICE ROOTS

Napoleon Bonaparte found licorice soothing during battle; he allegedly ate so much of it that his teeth turned black. (Don’t worry. The amount of licorice found in most of today’s licorice candy will not discolour your teeth.)

Modern licorice candy dates from 17th century Holland. At the time, Holland was one of the world’s most powerful countries. Her intrepid sailors spread this wonderful delicacy to other European nations. Today, licorice candy is manufactured throughout Europe, America, and Australia.

The Modern scientific Health Benefits of Licorice

Licorice is especially useful in fighting bronchitis, upper respiratory catarrh, and coughs. It stimulates mucus production and helps to loosen sticky phlegm. It also contains a chemical that has cough-suppressant properties.

THE LICORICE PLANT & FLOWER

Licorice also helps reduce stomach acid and increases mucus secretion in the gastric tract, soothing irritation and inflammation. It can be used to fight heartburn, indigestion, and gastric and duodenal ulcers. It may also shorten the healing time of mouth ulcers.

Small amounts of licorice, such as those found in candies, do not pose a risk. However, licorice is a powerful drug, and serious health problems can result from taking it at medicinal levels for long periods of time.

Long back in Italy was a saying, Ladies: 

"(L'amore e' un sogno, dolce come il latte e la Liquirizia)
 Love is a dream, sweet as milk and Licorice”

ITALIAN LICORICE SINCE 1731

Quick Facts About Licorice

The licorice plant, a shrub, is officially a weed. It is about four feet tall with purplish flowers and grows in hot, dry places.

Licorice root is one of the most popular herbs in the world. Its botanical name comes from the Greek words meaning "sweet root."

The ancient Greeks, Egyptians, Chinese, and Hindus recognized the natural medicinal qualities of licorice. Licorice helps relieve the pains that accompany certain types of ulcers, and it is good for the adrenal glands.

LICORICE

Carbenoxolone, a compound derived from licorice root, may help slow the effects of aging on the brain. Licorice root is a botanical ingredient in modern Chinese medicines used to manage cancers. Current research conducted at Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, supports the use of licorice in the treatment of prostate and breast cancer.

In the United States, anise seed is a popular substitute flavouring for licorice. Although the anise seed has an unmistakable licorice flavour, it is not related to the European plant whose roots are the source of true licorice.

The root of the drink

MEDECIN MAN

The medicinal use of licorice can be traced back to many ancient civilizations. Babylonians used it some 4000 years ago as a drink to strengthen the body and its immune system. Ancient Egyptians would prepare a licorice drink as a ritual to honour the spirits of the Pharaohs. Raw ErkSous was also found in the tomb of the ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Tutankhamun.

Ancient Egyptian doctors used to mix ErkSous with various medicines to treat stomach and liver problems,” said Dr. Mohamed Samy, an expert in alternative medicine, who practices herbal medicine.

“The Greeks, Romans and later the Arabs used it as well to treat coughs, indigestion, vomiting, stomach pains and general digestive ailments. Its health benefits have been mentioned in various old scrolls.”

The benefits of ErkSous

LICORICE ALLSORTS

ErkSous, extracted from the root of Glycyrrhiza glabra, a plant with blue flowers, has Licorice flower distinct sweet flavour. It contains sugar, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and others minerals. 

Until today Egyptians drink ErkSous to quench their thirst and for its health benefits.

“ErkSous strengthens the immune system,” said Mohamed Ibrahim, a spice shop owner and herbal medicine practitioner from Khan-Khalil. “It is a natural antibiotic that helps treat infections in the respiratory system.” that I greatly recommend to my clients, this sweet beverage can help and has no side effects.

“It is also very useful for coughs and throat soars. Some people used it as well to regulate the digestive system and for constipation,” added Ibrahim.

 Clank.. clink.. clank.. clink…

THE ERKSOUS VENDOR
 PAINTING BY C. CHAROBIM (1894-1975)

The rhythmic clanking of his cymbals resonates distinctively through the thick noise of Cairo’s busy downtown streets on hot summer days.

ErkSous, a healthy cold drink sold by the glass in the streets of Cairo and across the country.

When a thirsty passerby will stops the ErkSous Street Vendor for a cold ErkSous drink, the street vendor, in his baggy Turkish-style pants, thick cloth belt, little vest, and rubber boots, tilts his heavy ice-filled copper container decorated with a bunch of colourful plastic flowers that is strapped to his chest, and pours the brownish juice into a glass held way below his waist so as to foam up the liquid.

After rinsing the used glass with a dash of water sprinkled from a plastic jug slung over his shoulder, he tucks it back into a small rimmed tray fixed to one hip, and then bangs his cymbals again.

Preparing the drink

Preparing ErkSous is very easy and only takes a few hours to make.

A ErkSous Vendor from Souhag in Upper Egypt, has been doing it for years. He buys the raw ingredient from the spice shop. He places it in a bowl and sprays it with water and sodium carbonate, leaving to sit over night for seven or eight hours until it ferments.

Licorice Root Sodium carbonate helps in the fermenting process. ErkSous original color is light brown but turns dark as a chemical reaction to the sodium carbonate and the water.

ROAMING VENDOR

“The next morning, He rub the ErkSous together a little in his hands until it turns dark in colour,” a vendor, who learned the trade of making and selling ErkSous from his father". He then places the raw ErkSous in a sieve lined with fine gauze fabric, and pours water over it. The product is a drink ready to be served cold.

Many Egyptian families prepare this favoured drink in their homes. Some say making it themselves is cheaper than buying it, while others feel it is more hygienic than drinking it from a street Vendor.

The demand and consumption of ErkSous vary according to the time of the year.

Licorice, Kharoub and Sobia Cart

Our sales of raw ErkSous go up especially in the summer and of course during Ramadan,” said a spice shop owner in  Shubra, adding that his customers generally buy depending on the size of the family.

Sales increase in summer because ErkSous is served ice cold and is therefore very refreshing when the temperatures soar. During Ramadan, Egyptians also drink more ErkSous because it helps them prepare for the next day’s fast, as it lessens their thirst.

Times are changing

Today however, things are changing for the wandering ErkSous Vendors. Many have given up this job, finding it difficult to walk the streets with the heavy urns on their backs amidst Cairo’s crowded streets and traffic. Others on the other hand have opened juice shops where they can sell a larger assortment of drinks that better suits the demand of customers.

MODERN TIME
ERKSOUS AND OTHER JUICES
VENDOR ON CART

Life is hard nowadays and with the hot weather in the summer, the traffic and the bustling streets, who could stand walking around all day with that weight on their back,” said a juice shop owner in El-Sayeda. “That’s why my dad and I decided to open this shop to sell ErkSous and other refreshments as well.”

Other Vendors did not give up wandering the streets completely. Instead they have opted for a wheeled cart to help them reduce some of their works’ strain.

In the past the city was not so crowded with people and cars, summer were not that harsh and the pollution was much less, I was also much younger and had a better health, so it wasn’t difficult for me to walk around all day, but nowadays things are different.

COLOURED DRAWING
ON COPPER

After selling ErkSous for many years in the streets the smiling vendor said, I built this cart with wheels, which makes it a lot easier for me now to walk around from street to street without getting too tired. It also allows me to sell more than one type of drink at the same time, so today for example I have ErkSous, Tamr Hindi (a tamarind fruit ice drink) and sobia (a sweet drink made of grinded rice, coconut, sugar and milk mixed together in water). Also I have blocks of ice in the cart, to keep the drinks nice and cool.”

Parts of Article inspired by an Ingrid Wassmann blog.