GOLD

ARTICLE FROM AN INTERESTING SITE 

CALLED ANCIENT ORIGIN

 https://www.ancient-origins.net/

PHARAONIC GOLD RING

The periodic table of chemical elements  turns 150  this year. The anniversary is a chance to shine a light on particular elements some of which seem ubiquitous but which ordinary people beyond the world of chemistry probably don’t know much about.

One of these is gold, which was the subject of my postgraduate degrees in chemistry, and which I have  been studying  for almost 30 years. In chemistry, gold can be considered a late starter when compared to most other metals. It was always considered to be chemically “inert” but in recent decades it has flourished and a variety of interesting applications have emerged.

A long, curious history

Gold takes its name from the Latin word aurum (“yellow”). It’s an element with a long but rather mysterious history. For instance, it’s one of 12 confirmed elements on the periodic table whose discoverer  is unknown . The others are carbon, sulfur, copper, silver, iron, tin, antimony, mercury, lead, zinc and bismuth.

Though we’re not sure who discovered it, there’s evidence to suggest it was known to the ancient Egyptians as far back as  3000 BC . Historically, its primary use was for jewellery; this is still the case  today, it’s also used in mint coins. Gold is also found in ancient and modern art: it’s used to prepare ruby or purple pigment, or as gold leaf.

Egyptian golden lion sculpture (Dieter Hawlan / Adobe Stock)

South Africa was once the top  gold-producing country  by far: it mined over 1,000 tonnes in 1970 alone. Its annual output has steadily fallen since then – the top three gold producing countries  in 2017  were China, Australia and Russia, with a combined output of almost 1000 tonnes. South Africa has dropped to 8th position, even surpassed by Peru and Indonesia.

But gold’s uses and its chemical properties extend into many other areas beyond jewels and minted coins. From pharmaceutical research to nanotechnology, this ancient element is being used to drive new technologies that are pushing the world into the future.

Ancient Egyptian jewelry bracelets and necklaces of gold (EdNurg / Adobe Stock)

Why and how it’s useful

Of the 118 confirmed elements in the periodic table, nine are naturally occurring elements with radioactive  isotopes that are used in so-called nuclear medicine. Gold is not radioactive but is nevertheless very useful in medicine in the form of gold-containing drugs.

There are  two classes  of gold drugs used to treat rheumatoid arthritis. One is injectable gold thiolates – molecules with a sulfur atom at one end, and a chemical chain of virtually any description attached to them – found in drugs such as Myocrisin, Solganol and Allocrysin. The other is an oral complex called  Auranofin.

GOLD SHOES OF KING
TUTANKHAMON (1332 BC)

Gold is also increasingly being used in  nanotechnology. A nanomaterial is generally considered a material where any of its three dimensions is 100 nanometres (nm) or less. Nanotechnology is useful because it is not restricted to a particular material – any material could in principle be made into a nanomaterial – but rather a particular property: the property of size.

For example, gold in its bulk form has a distinct yellow colour. But as it is broken up into very small pieces it starts to change colour, through a range of red and purple, depending on the relative size of the gold nanoparticles. Such nanoparticles could be used in a variety of applications, for example in the  biomedical or optical-electronic fields.

Another exciting advancement for gold in nanotechnology was the discovery in 1983 that a clean gold surface dipped into a solution containing a thiolate could form  self-assembled monolayers . These monolayers modify the surface of gold in very innovative ways. Research into surface modification is important because the surface of anything can show very different properties than the bulk (that is, the inside) of the same material.

More to come

Pharaonic Gold dentistry

Gold nanoparticles have also proven to be an effective catalyst. A catalyst is a material that increases the rate of a chemical reaction and so reduces the amount of energy required without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change. This is important because catalysis lies at the heart of many  manufactured goods  we use today. For example, a catalyst turns propylene into propylene oxide, which is the first step in making antifreeze.

Two discoveries in the 1980s made scientists look at gold catalysis differently. Masatake Haruta, in Osaka, Japan, made mixed oxides containing gold – and  discovered the material was remarkably active to catalyse the oxidation of toxic carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide. Today, this catalyst is found in vehicle exhausts.

At the same time  Graham Hutchings , who was working in industry in Johannesburg, South Africa,  discovered a gold catalyst  that would work best for acetylene hydrochlorination. This process is central to PVC plastic, which is used in virtually all plumbing production. Until then, the industrial catalyst for this process was using environmentally unfriendly mercuric chloride material.

 

3D illustration of gold nanoparticles (Kateryna_Kon / Adobe Stock)

Many applications

In my opinion, gold has many more uses that haven’t yet been discovered. There is much more to come in the world of  gold research .

There will, in the next few years, be new developments in how the element is used in, amongst others, medicine, nanotechnology and catalysis. It will also find new applications in relativistic quantum chemistry (combining relativistic mechanics with quantum chemistry), surface science (the physics and chemistry of surfaces and how they interact), luminescence and  photophysics – and more.

Ancient Peruvian mask made of gold (Carlos Santa Maria / Adobe Stock)

 The article ‘ From medicine to nanotechnology: How gold quietly shapes our world ’ by Werner van Zyl was first published on The Conversation and has been republished under a Creative Commons license.

Goto Youtube for a video about the:  Scientific Uses of Gold

This article is the property of "Ancient Origin" 
I just present it here as is to my Blog readers with reference to the original...

Egyptian wine

WINE LABLE FROM EARLY 1900's

Winemaking has a long tradition in Egypt dating back to the 3rd millennium BC. The modern wine industry is relatively small scale but there have been significant strides towards reviving the industry. In the late nineties the industry invited international expertise in a bid to improve the quality of Egyptian wine, which used to be known for its poor quality. In recent years Egyptian wines have received some recognition, having won several international awards. In 2013 Egypt produced 4,500 tones’ of wine, ranking 54th globally, ahead of Belgium and the United Kingdom.

History

Grape cultivation, winemaking, and commerce in ancient Egypt circa 1500 BC.

Wine played an important role in ancient Egyptian ceremonial life. A thriving royal winemaking industry was established in the Nile Delta following the introduction of grape cultivation from the Levant to Egypt c. 3000 BC. The industry was most likely the result of trade between Egypt and Canaan during the early Bronze Age, commencing from at least the 27th-century BC Third Dynasty, the beginning of the Old Kingdom period. Winemaking scenes on tomb walls, and the offering lists that accompanied them, included wine that was definitely produced in the delta vineyards. By the end of the Old Kingdom, five distinct wines, probably all produced in the Delta, constituted a canonical set of provisions for the afterlife.

GATHERING GRAPES

Wine in ancient Egypt was predominantly red. Due to its resemblance to blood, much superstition surrounded wine-drinking in Egyptian culture. Shedeh, the most precious drink in ancient Egypt, is now known to have been a red wine and not fermented from pomegranates as previously thought. Plutarch's Moralia relates that, prior to Psammetichus I, the pharaohs did not drink wine nor offer it to the gods "thinking it to be the blood of those who had once battled against the gods and from whom, when they had fallen and had become commingled with the earth, they believed vines to have sprung". This was considered to be the reason why drunkenness "drives men out of their senses and crazes them, inasmuch as they are then filled with the blood of their forebears".

Residue from five clay amphoras’ in Tutankhamen’s tomb, however, have been shown to be that of white wine, so it was at least available to the Egyptians through trade if not produced domestically.

OLD AMPHORA 

Winemaking continued to be part of Egyptian culture during Roman rule in Egypt. Christians constituted the majority of Egypt’s population by the 3rd century, despite a reserved attitude towards alcohol in the Church of Alexandria monasteries are known have stored and produced large quantities of wine. In 2008 two wine presses dating back to Roman rule in Egypt were unearthed near Saint Catherine's Monastery in Sinai, along with ancient coins from Antioch, which could indicate that Egyptian wine was exported to Christians in the region.

The production of wine declined significantly after the Muslim conquest of Egypt in the 7th century. Attitudes towards alcohol varied greatly under Islamic rule, Muslim rulers generally showed some level of tolerance towards alcohol production controlled by religious minorities. Jewish manuscripts from the Cairo Geniza recount the involvement of Egyptian Jews in the production and sale of wine in medieval Egypt.  

WINE IN ANCIENT EGYPT

The consumption of wine was not necessarily limited to religious minorities however. Western travelers and pilgrims passing through Cairo on their journeys reported that Muslim locals imbibed on wine and a local barley beer, known as "booza" ( بوظة‎, not to be confused with the Levantine ice cream of the same name), even during the most draconian periods of Islamic rule. The most popular wine was known as "nebit shamsi" (نبيذ شمسي‎), made from imported raisins and honey and left to ferment in the sun (hence the name, which roughly translates into "sun wine").

Greek-Egyptian tobacco merchant and entrepreneur, Nestor Gianaclis, who founded the country’s first modern vineyard south of Alexandria in 1882, revived viticulture in Egypt. The country's wine industry expanded under the early 20th century, until the Egyptian revolution of 1952, which saw the country's liberal monarchy unseated, in favor of a presidential system. In 1963 Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized and merged breweries and vineyards in the country, under the previously Belgian-owned Pyramid Brewery, which later came to be known as Al Ahram Beverages Company.

POURING WINE

Mismanagement under state-ownership and an increasingly religious population contributed to the industry's gradual decline. The company was privatized in 1997, at the height of its ruination, part of an economic reform program that sought to restructure the country's economy. This was viewed as a turning point for the alcohol industry as a whole in Egypt.

Its new owner, Egyptian businessman Ahmed Zayat, restructured the company and introduced a line of non-alcoholic beverages that would appeal to the conservative segment of the population.

The company was sold to Heineken International in 2002 for $280 million.

Information and pictures compiled from various internet sources.

The Abu Simbel Temples

Old picture when Temple was on the banks of the river Nile
Copyright "Ahl Masr Zaman" 

The Abu Simbel temples are two massive rock temples at Abu Simbel, a village in Nubia, southern Egypt, near the border with Sudan. They are situated on the western bank of Lake Nasser, about 230 km southwest of Aswan. The complex is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the "Nubian Monuments", which run from Abu Simbel downriver to Philae (near Aswan). The twin temples were originally carved out of the mountainside in the 13th century BC, during the 19th dynasty reign of the Pharaoh Ramesses II. They serve as a lasting monument to the king and his queen Nefertari, and commemorate his victory at the Battle of Kadesh. Their huge external rock relief figures have become iconic.

RAMESSES II TEMPLE - notice size of persons
Photography Sharobim (2006)

The complex was relocated in its entirety in 1968 under the supervision of a Polish archaeologist, Kazimierz Michałowski, on an artificial hill made from a domed structure, high above the Aswan High Dam reservoir. The relocation of the temples was necessary or they would have been submerged during the creation of Lake Nasser, the massive artificial water reservoir formed after the building of the Aswan High Dam on the Nile River.

Construction of the temple complex started in approximately 1264 BC and lasted for about 20 years, until 1244 BC. Known as the "Temple of Ramesses, beloved by Amun" it was one of six rock temples erected in Nubia during the long reign of Ramesses II. Their purpose was to impress Egypt's southern neighbours, and also to reinforce the status of Egyptian religion in the region.

Rediscovery

1885 PICTURE OF 
Abou Simbel
partially covered by sand

With the passage of time, the temples fell into disuse and eventually became covered by sand. By the 6th century BC, the sand already covered the statues of the main temple up to their knees. The temple was forgotten until 1813, when Swiss orientalist Jean-Louis Burckhardt found the top frieze of the main temple. Burckhardt talked about his discovery with Italian explorer Giovanni Belzoni, who travelled to the site, but was unable to dig out an entry to the temple. Belzoni returned in 1817, this time succeeding in his attempt to enter the complex.

The collapsed colossus of the Great Temple supposedly fell during an earthquake shortly after its construction. On moving the temple, it was decided to leave it as the face is missing.

In 1959, an international donations campaign to save the monuments of Nubia began: the southernmost relics of this ancient human civilization were under threat from the rising waters of the Nile that were about to result from the construction of the Aswan 

High Dam.

CUTTING THE TEMPLE

One scheme to save the temples was based on an idea by William MacQuitty to build a clear fresh water dam around the temples, with the water inside kept at the same height as the Nile. There were to be underwater viewing chambers. In 1962 the idea was made into a proposal by architects Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry and civil engineer Ove Arup. They considered that raising the temples ignored the effect of erosion of the sandstone by desert winds. However the proposal, though acknowledged to be extremely elegant, was rejected.

One of the greatest challenges of archaeological engineering in history.

RECONSTRUCTION

The salvage of the Abu Simbel temples began in 1964 by a multinational team of archeologists, engineers and skilled heavy equipment operators working together under the UNESCO banner; it cost some US$40 million at the time (equal to $300 million in 2017 dollars). Between 1964 and 1968, the entire site was carefully cut into large blocks (up to 30 tons, averaging 20 tons), dismantled, lifted and reassembled in a new location 65 meters higher and 200 meters back from the river, in one of the greatest challenges of archaeological engineering in history. Some structures were even saved from under the waters of Lake Nasser. Today, a few hundred tourists visit the temples daily. Guarded convoys of buses and cars depart twice a day from Aswan, the nearest city. Many visitors also arrive by plane at an airfield that was specially constructed for the temple complex.

The complex consists of two temples. The larger one is dedicated to Ra-Harakhty, Ptah and Amun, Egypt's three state deities of the time, and features four large statues of Ramesses II in the facade. The smaller temple is dedicated to the goddess Hathor, personified by Nefertari, Ramesses's most beloved of his many wives. The temple is now open to the public.

The Great Temple at Abu Simbel, which took about twenty years to build, was completed around year 24 of the reign of Ramesses the Great (which corresponds to 1265 BC). It was dedicated to the gods Amun, Ra-Horakhty, and Ptah, as well as to the deified Rameses himself. It is generally considered the grandest and most beautiful of the temples commissioned during the reign of Rameses II, and one of the most beautiful in Egypt.

RAMESSES II

Four colossal 20 meter statues of the pharaoh with the double Atef crown of Upper and Lower Egypt decorate the facade of the temple, which is 35 meters wide and is topped by a frieze with 22 baboons, worshippers of the sun and flank the entrance. The colossal statues were sculpted directly from the rock in which the temple was located before it was moved. All statues represent Ramesses II, seated on a throne and wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. The statue to the left of the entrance was damaged in an earthquake, leaving only the lower part of the statue still intact. The head and torso can still be seen at the statue's feet.

Next to the legs of the colossi, there are other statues no higher than the knees of the pharaoh. These depict Nefertari, Ramesses's chief wife, and queen mother Mut-Tuy, his first two sons Amun-her-khepeshef, Ramesses, and his first six daughters Bintanath, Baketmut, Nefertari, Meritamen, Nebettawy and Isetnofret.

The entrance itself is crowned by a bas-relief representing two images of the king worshipping the falcon-headed Ra Harakhti, whose statue stands in a large niche. This god is holding the hieroglyph "user" and a feather in his right hand, with Ma'at, (the goddess of truth and justice) in his left; this is nothing less than a gigantic cryptogram for Ramesses II's throne name, User-Maat-Re. The facade is topped by a row of 22 baboons, their arms raised in the air, supposedly worshipping the rising sun. Another notable feature of the facade is a stele which records the marriage of Ramesses with a daughter of king Hattusili III, which sealed the peace between Egypt and the Hittites.

INTERIOR OF TEMPLE

The inner part of the temple has the same triangular layout that most ancient Egyptian temples follow, with rooms decreasing in size from the entrance to the sanctuary. The temple is complex in structure and quite unusual because of its many side chambers. The hypostyle hall (sometimes also called a pronaos) is 18 meters long and 16.7 meters wide and is supported by eight huge Osirid pillars depicting the deified Ramses linked to the god Osiris, the god of the Underworld, to indicate the everlasting nature of the pharaoh. The colossal statues along the left-hand wall bear the white crown of Upper Egypt, while those on the opposite side are wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt (pschent). The bas-reliefs on the walls of the pronaos depict battle scenes in the military campaigns the ruler waged. Much of the sculpture is given to the Battle of Kadesh, on the Orontes river in present-day Syria, in which the Egyptian king fought against the Hittites. The most famous relief shows the king on his chariot shooting arrows against his fleeing enemies, who are being taken prisoner. Other scenes show Egyptian victories in Libya and Nubia.

From the hypostyle hall, one enters the second pillared hall, which has four pillars decorated with beautiful scenes of offerings to the gods. There are depictions of Ramesses and Nefertari with the sacred boats of Amun and Ra-Harakhti. This hall gives access to a transverse vestibule in the middle of which is the entrance to the sanctuary. Here, on a black wall, are rock cut sculptures of four seated figures: Ra-Horakhty, the deified king Ramesses, and the gods Amun Ra and Ptah. Ra-Horakhty, Amun Ra and Ptah were the main divinities in that period and their cult centers were at Heliopolis, Thebes and Memphis respectively.

Reconstructed temples on lake Nasser 65 meters above the original site
to the right Hator temple and to the left Ramesses temple 

Solar alignment

It is believed that the axis of the temple was positioned by the ancient Egyptian architects in such a way that on October 22 and February 22, the rays of the sun would penetrate the sanctuary and illuminate the sculptures on the back wall, except for the statue of Ptah, a god connected with the Underworld, who always remained in the dark. People gather at Abu Simbel to witness this remarkable sight, on October 21 and February 21.

SUN ILLUMINATION 

These dates are allegedly the king's birthday and coronation day, respectively. There is no direct evidence to support this. It is logical to assume, however, that these dates had some relation to a great event, such as the jubilee celebrating the thirtieth anniversary of the pharaoh's rule. In fact, according to calculations made on the basis of the heliacal rising of the star Sirius (Sothis) and inscriptions found by archaeologists, this date must have been October 22. This image of the king was enhanced and revitalized by the energy of the solar star, and the deified Ramesses the Great could take his place next to Amun Ra and Ra-Horakhty.

Due to the displacement of the temple and/or the accumulated drift of the Tropic of Cancer during the past 3,280 years, it is widely believed that each of these two events has moved one day closer to the Solstice, so they would be occurring on October 22 and February 20 (60 days before and 60 days after the Solstice, respectively).

Greek Graffito

A well-known graffito inscribed in Greek on the left leg of the colossal seated statue of Ramesses II, on the south side of the entrance to the temple records that:

"When King Psammetichus (i.e., Psamtik II) came to Elephantine, this was written by those who sailed with Psammetichus the son of Theocles, and they came beyond Kerkis as far as the river permits. Those who spoke foreign tongues (Greek and Carians who also scratched their names on the monument) were led by Potasimto, the Egyptians by Amasis".

Kerkis was located near the Fifth Cataract of the Nile "which stood well within the Cushite Kingdom."

HATOR TEMPLE

The temple of Hathor and Nefertari, also known as the Small Temple, was built about one hundred meters northeast of the temple of pharaoh Ramesses II and was dedicated to the goddess Hathor and Ramesses II's chief consort, Nefertari. This was in fact the second time in ancient Egyptian history that a temple was dedicated to a queen. The first time, Akhenaten dedicated a temple to his great royal wife, Nefertiti. The rock-cut facade is decorated with two groups of colossi that are separated by the large gateway. The statues, slightly more than ten meters high, are of the king and his queen. On either side of the portal are two statues of the king, wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt (south colossus) and the double crown (north colossus); these are flanked by statues of the queen.

The gods Set (left) and Horus (right) blessing Ramesses in the small

 temple at Abu Simbel

Remarkably, this is one of very few instances in Egyptian art where the statues of the king and his consort have equal size. Traditionally, the statues of the queens stood next to those of the pharaoh, but were never taller than his knees. Ramesses went to Abu Simbel with his wife in the 24th year of his reign. As the Great Temple of the king, there are small statues of princes and princesses next to their parents. In this case they are positioned symmetrically: on the south side (at left as one faces the gateway) are, from left to right, princes Meryatum and Meryre, princesses Meritamen and Henuttawy, and princes Rahirwenemef and Amun-her-khepeshef, while on the north side the same figures are in reverse order. The plan of the Small Temple is a simplified version of that of the Great Temple.

Nefertari offering sistrums to seated goddess Hathor, 

frieze inside the Small Temple

As the larger temple dedicated to the king, the hypostyle hall or pronaos is supported by six pillars; in this case, however, they are not Osiris pillars depicting the king, but are decorated with scenes with the queen playing the sistrum (an instrument sacred to the goddess Hathor), together with the gods Horus, Khnum, Khonsu, and Thoth, and the goddesses Hathor, Isis, Maat, Mut of Asher, Satis and Taweret; in one scene Ramesses is presenting flowers or burning incense. 

SET BLESSING RAMESSES (close-up)

The capitals of the pillars bear the face of the goddess Hathor; this type of column is known as Hathoric. The bas-reliefs in the pillared hall illustrate the deification of the king, the destruction of his enemies in the north and south (in this scenes the king is accompanied by his wife), and the queen making offerings to the goddess Hathor and Mut. The hypostyle hall is followed by a vestibule, access to which is given by three large doors. On the south and the north walls of this chamber there are two graceful and poetic bas-reliefs of the king and his consort presenting papyrus plants to Hathor, who is depicted as a cow on a boat sailing in a thicket of papyri. On the west wall, Ramesses II and Nefertari are depicted making offerings to god Horus and the divinities of the Cataracts — Satis, Anubis and Khnum.

The rock cut sanctuary and the two side chambers are connected to the transverse vestibule and are aligned with the axis of the temple. The bas-reliefs on the side walls of the small sanctuary represent scenes of offerings to various gods made either by the pharaoh or the queen. On the back wall, which lies to the west along the axis of the temple, there is a niche in which Hathor, as a divine cow, seems to be coming out of the mountain: the goddess is depicted as the Mistress of the temple dedicated to her and to queen Nefertari, who is intimately linked to the goddess.

BAS-RELIEF in TEMPLE

Each temple had its own priest that represents the king in daily religious ceremonies. In theory, the Pharaoh would have been the only celebrant in daily religious ceremonies performed in different temples throughout Egypt. In reality, the high priest also played that role. To reach that position, an extensive education in art and science was necessary, like the one pharaoh had. Reading, writing, engineering, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, space measurement, time calculations, were all part of this learning. The priests of Heliopolis, for example, became guardians of sacred knowledge and earned the reputation of wise men.

Article and pictures compiled from different sources 

Egypt Dynastic chronology

As Egypt discover a 4400 year old tomb in Saqqara this last few weeks (November 2018) and named the buried person as the Royal purification priest "WAHTYE" from the reign of  king NEFER-IR-KA-RE of the fifth dynasty between year 2500-2300 BC. 

Uncovered tomb of Fifth Dynasty royal priest in Saqqara (Photo: Nevine El-Aref)

This discovery triggered my curiosity about the Egyptian dynasties (30 in total)  and gave me an incentive to learn more about my ancestors, after having investigated this amazing history, I thought of sharing some results with you. 

See below a simplified version summarizing this long history.

Original article by K. Kris Hirst

The dynastic Egypt chronology that we use to name and classify the 2,700-year long list of royal pharaohs is based on myriad sources. There are ancient history sources such as kings lists, annals, and other documents translated into Greek and Latin, archaeological studies using radiocarbon and dendrochronology, and hieroglyphic studies such as the Turin Canon, the Palermo Stone, the Pyramid and Coffin Texts.

PYRAMIDS OF GIZA

Manetho and His King's List

The primary source for the thirty established dynasties, sequences of rulers united by kinship or their principal royal residence, is the 3rd century B.C.E. Egyptian priest Manetho. His entire work included a king-list and narratives, prophecies, and royal and non-royal biographies. Written in Greek and called the Aegyptiaca (History of Egypt), Manetho's complete text has not survived, but scholars have discovered copies of the king's list and other pieces in narratives dated between the 3rd and 8th centuries CE.

Some of those narratives were used by the Jewish historian Josephus, who wrote his 1st century CE book Against Apion using borrowings, summaries, paraphrases, and recapitulations of Manetho, with specific emphasis on the  Second Intermediate Hyksos rulers. Other fragments are found in the writings of Africanus and Eusebius.

Many other documents pertaining to the royal dynasties had to wait until Egyptian hieroglyphs on the Rosetta Stone were translated by Jean-Francois Champollion in the early 19th century. Later in the century, historians imposed the now-familiar Old-Middle-New Kingdom structure onto Manethos' king list. The Old, Middle and New Kingdoms were periods when upper and lower parts of the Nile Valley were united; the Intermediate periods were when the union fell apart. Recent studies continue to find a more nuanced structure than that suggested by Manetho or the 19th-century historians.

Egypt Before the Pharaohs

From the Brooklyn Museum's Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, this female figurine dates to the Naqada II period of the Predynastic period, 3500-3400 BC. ego.technique

There were people in Egypt long before the pharaohs, and cultural elements of the previous periods prove that the rise of dynastic Egypt was a local evolution.

•            Paleolithic Period c. 700,000-7000 B.C.E.

•            Neolithic Period c. 8800-4700 B.C.E.

•            Predynastic Period c. 5300-3000 B.C.E.

Settlements were established beside the Nile River by Merimdeon, Tasian and Badarian. Hieroglyphs made their first appearance around the end of this period. 

Early Dynastic Egypt - Dynasties 0-2, 3200-2686 B.C.E.

A procession of the early dynastic Pharaoh Narmer is illustrated on this facsimile of the famous Narmer Palette, found at Hierakonpolis. Keith Schengili-Roberts

Dynasty 0 [3200-3000 B.C.E.] is what Egyptologists call a group of Egyptian rulers who are not on Manetho's list, definitely predate the traditional original founder of dynastic Egypt Narmer, and were found buried in a cemetery at Abydos in the 1980s. These rulers were identified as pharaohs by the presence of the nesu-bit title "King of Upper and Lower Egypt" next to their names. The earliest of these rulers is Den (c. 2900 B.C.E.) and the last is Scorpion II, known as the "Scorpion King". The 5th century B.C.E. Palermo stone also lists these rulers.

Early Dynastic Period [Dynasties 1-2, ca. 3000-2686 B.C.E.]. By about 3000 B.C.E., the Early Dynastic state had emerged in Egypt, and its rulers controlled the Nile valley from the delta to the first cataract at Aswan. The capital of this 1000 km (620 mi) stretch of the river was probably at Hierakonpolis or possibly Abydos where the rulers were buried. The first ruler was Menes or Narmer, ca. 3100 B.C.E. The administrative structures and royal tombs were built almost entirely of sun-dried mud brick, wood, and reeds, and so little remains of them.

Rulers of the First Dynasty: 
Narmer (Menes), Aha, Djer, Djet, Den, Anedjib, Semerkhe and Qaa 

Rulers of the Second Dynasty: 

Hotepsekhemwy, Raneb, Ninetjer, Seth-Peribsen, Khasekhemwy

The Old Kingdom - Dynasties 3-8, ca. 2686-2160 B.C.E.

 Step Pyramid at Saqqara. peifferc

The Old Kingdom is the name designated by 19th-century historians to refer to the first period reported by Manetho when both the north (Lower) and south (Upper) parts of the Nile Valley were united under one ruler. It is also known as the Pyramid Age, for more than a dozen pyramids were built at Giza and Saqqara. The first pharaoh of the old kingdom was Djoser (3rd dynasty, 2667-2648 B.C.E.), who built the first monumental stone structure, called the Step Pyramid.

The administrative heart of the Old Kingdom was at Memphis, where a vizier ran the central government administration. Local governors accomplished those tasks in Upper and Lower Egypt. The Old Kingdom was a long period of economic prosperity and political stability that included long distance trade with the Levant and Nubia. Beginning in the 6th dynasty, however, the central government's power began to erode with Pepys II long 93-year reign.

Dynasty III (2686 - 2575 BC):
Rulers of the Third Dynasty: Sanakhte, (2686 - 2668 BC), Zoser aka Djoser (2668 - 2649 BC), Sekhemkhet (2649 - 2643 BC), Khaba (2643 - 2637 BC), Huni (2637 - 2613 BC).

Dynasty IV (2613 - 2498 BC):
Rulers of the Fourth Dynasty: Sneferu (2613 - 2589 ), Khufu aka Cheops (2589 - 2566 BC), Radjedef (2566 - 2558 BC), Khafre aka Cheophren (2558 - 2532 BC), Menkaru aka Mycerinus (2532 - 2504 BC) and Shepseskaf (2504 - 2500 BC).

Dynasty V (2465 - 2323 BC): 
Rulers of the Fifth Dynasty: Userkef (2498 - 2491 BC), Sahure (2491 - 2477 BC), Neferirkare Kakai (2477 - 2467 BC). Shepseskare Ini (2467 - 2460 BC), Raneferef (2460 - 2453 BC), Neuserre Izi (2453 - 2422BC), Menkauhor (2422 - 2414 BC), Djedkare Isesi (2414 - 2375 BC) and Unas (2375 - 2345 BC). 

Dynasty VI (2345 - 2181 BC):
Rulers of the Sixth Dynasty: Teti (2345 - 2333 BC), Pepi I (2332 - 2283 BC), Merenre (2283 - 2278 BC) and Pepi II (2278 - 2184 BC).

First Intermediate Period - Dynasties 9-mid 11, ca. 2160-2055 B.C.E.

 First Intermediate Frieze from the Tomb of Mereri, 9th Dynasty Egypt.

Metropolitan Museum, Gift of Egypt Exploration Fund, 1898

By the beginning of the First Intermediate Period, the power base of Egypt had shifted to Herakleopolis located 100 km (62 mi) upstream from Memphis.

The large-scale building came to a halt and the provinces were ruled locally. Ultimately the central government collapsed and foreign trade stopped. The country was fragmented and unstable, with civil war and cannibalism driven by famine, and the redistribution of wealth. Texts from this period include the Coffin Texts, which were inscribed on elite coffins in multiple roomed burials.

A period about which little is known. Foreign occupation and continued internal struggle were common and rulers did not last very long.. Invaders known as the Hyksos came in 1730 BC from Asia and moved into the Delta. This period of instability lasted from 1730 to 1580 BC and was brought to an end by a Theban family, one of whom (Ahmose) finally expelled the Hyksos to start the 18th Dynasty and the rise of the New Kingdom era.

Middle Kingdom - Dynasties mid-11-14, 2055-1650 B.C.E.

Middle Kingdom coffin of Khnumankht, an unknown person from Khashaba in the early 20th century B.C.E. The Metropolitan Museum, Rogers Fund, 1915

The Middle Kingdom began with the victory of Mentuhotep II of Thebes over his rivals at Herakleopolis, and the reunification of Egypt. Monumental building construction resumed with Bab el-Hosan, a pyramid complex which followed Old Kingdom traditions, but had a mud-brick core with a grid of stone walls and finished with limestone casing blocks. This complex has not survived well.

By the 12th dynasty, the capital moved to Amemenhet Itj-tawj, which has not been found but was likely close to the Fayyum Oasis. The central administration had a vizier at the top, a treasury, and ministries for harvesting and crop management; cattle and fields; and labor for building programs. The king was still the divine absolute ruler but the government was based on a representative theocracy rather than direct rules.

The Middle Kingdom pharaohs conquered Nubia, conducted raids into the Levant, and brought back Asiatics as slaves, who eventually established themselves as a power block in the delta region and threatened the empire.

Second Intermediate Period - Dynasties 15-17, 1650-1550 B.C.E.

Second Intermediate Period Egypt, Headband from the Eastern Delta, 15th Dynasty 1648-1540 B.C.E. The Metropolitan Museum, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift, 1968

During the Second Intermediate Period, the dynastic stability ended, the central government collapsed, and dozens of kings from different lineages reigned in quick succession. Some of the rulers were from the Asiatic colonies in the Delta region—the Hyksos.

The royal mortuary cults stopped but contacts with the Levant were maintained and more Asiatics came into Egypt. The Hyksos conquered Memphis and built their royal residence at Avaris (Tell el-Daba) in the eastern delta. The city of Avaris was enormous, with a huge citadel with vineyards and gardens. The Hyksos allied with Kushite Nubia and established extensive trade with the Aegean and Levant.

The 17th dynasty Egyptian rulers at Thebes started a "war of liberation" against the Hyksos, and eventually, the Thebans overthrew Hyksos, ushering in what 19th-century scholars called the New Kingdom.

New Kingdom - Dynasties 18-24, 1550-1069 B.C.E.

DEIR EL BARHI

Hatshepsut's Djeser-Djeseru Temple at Deir el Barhi. Yen Chung / Moment / Getty Images

The first New Kingdom ruler was Ahmose (1550-1525 B.C.E.) who drove the Hyksos out of Egypt, and established many internal reforms and political restructuring. The 18th dynasty rulers, especially Thutmosis III, conducted dozens of military campaigns in the Levant. Trade was reestablished between the Sinai peninsula and the Mediterranean, and the southern border was extended as far south as Gebel Barkal.

Egypt became prosperous and wealthy, especially under Amenophis III (1390-1352 B.C.E.), but turmoil arose when his son Akhenaten (1352-1336 B.C.E.) left Thebes, moved the capital to Akhetaten (Tell el-Amarna), and radically reformed the religion to the monotheistic Aten cult. It didn't last long. The first attempts to restore the old religion began as early as the rule of Akhenaten's son Tutankhamun (1336-1327 B.C.E.), and eventually persecution of the practitioners of the Aten cult proved successful and the old religion was re-established.

Civil officials were replaced by military personnel, and the army became the most influential domestic power in the country. At the same time, the Hittites from Mesopotamia became imperialistic and threatened Egypt. At the Battle of Qadesh, Ramses II met the Hittite troops under Muwatalli, but it ended in a stalemate, with a peace treaty.

By the end of the 13th century B.C.E., a new danger had arisen from the so-called Sea Peoples. First Merneptah (1213-1203 B.C.E.) then Ramses III (1184-1153 B.C.E.), fought and won important battles with the Sea Peoples. By the end of the New Kingdom, however, Egypt was forced to withdraw from the Levant.

Dynasty XVIII (1570 - 1293 BC): 
Rulers of the Eighteenth Dynasty: Ahmose I (1570 - 1546 BC), Amenhotep I (1551 - 1524 BC),Tuthmosis I (1524 - 1518 BC), Tuthmosis II (1528 - 1504 BC), Queen Hatshepsut (1498 - 1483 BC) Tuthmosis III (1504 - 1450 BC), Amenhotep II (1453 - 1419 BC), Tuthmosis IV (1419 - 1386 BC), Amenhotep III (1386 - 1349 BC), Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton) (1350 - 1334 BC), Smenkhkare (1336 -1334 BC), Tutankhamun (1334 -1325 BC) Ay (1325 - 1321 BC) and Horemheb (1321 - 1293 BC).

Dynasty XIX (1293 - 1185 BC):
Rulers of the Nineteenth Dynasty: Ramesses I (1291 - 1291 BC), Seti I (1291 1278 BC), Ramesses II (1279 - 1212 BC), Merneptah (1212 - 1202 BC), Amenmesses (1202 - 1199 BC), Seti II (1199 - 1193 BC), Siptah (1193 - 1187 BC) and Queen Twosret (1187 - 1185 BC).

Dynasty XX (1185 - 1070 BC): 
Rulers of the Twentieth Dynasty: Setnakhte (1185 - 1182 BC), Ramesses III (1182 - 1151 BC), Ramesses IV (1151 - 1145 BC), Ramesses V (1145 - 1141 BC), Ramesses VI (1141 - 1133 BC), Ramesses VII (1133 - 1126 BC), Ramesses VIII (1133 - 1126 BC), Ramesses IX (1126 - 1108 BC), Ramesses X (1108 - 1098 BC) and Ramesses IV (1098 - 1070 BC).

Third Intermediate Period - Dynasties 21-25, ca. 1069-664 B.C.E.

KUSH

 Capital City of the Kingdom of Kush, Meroe. Yannick Tylle . Corbiss Documentary / Getty Images

The Third Intermediate Period began with a major political upheaval, a civil war fomented by the Kushite viceroy Panehsy. Military action failed to reestablish control over Nubia, and when the last Ramessid king died in 1069 B.C.E., a new power structure was in control of the country.

Although at the surface the country was united, in reality, the north was ruled from Tanis (or perhaps Memphis) in the Nile Delta, and lower Egypt was ruled from Thebes. A formal frontier between the regions was established at Teudjoi, the entrance to the Fayyum Oasis. 

The central government at Thebes was essentially a theocracy, with supreme political authority resting with the god Amun.

Beginning in the 9th century B.C.E., numerous local rulers became virtually autonomous, and several declared themselves kings. Libyans from Cyrenaica took a dominant role, becoming kings by the second half of the 21st dynasty. Kushite rule over Egypt was established by the 25th dynasty [747-664 B.C.E.)

Late Period - Dynasties 26-31, 664-332 B.C.E.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT

 Mosaic of Battle of Issus between Alexander the Great and Darius III. Corbis via Getty Images / Getty Images

The Late Period in Egypt lasted between 343-332 B.C.E., a time when Egypt became a Persian satrapy. The country was reunified by Psamtek I (664-610 B.C.E.), in part because the Assyrians had weakened in their own country and could not maintain their control in Egypt. He and subsequent leaders used mercenaries from Greek, Carian, Jewish, Phoenician, and possibly Bedouin groups, that were there to guarantee Egypt's security from the Assyrians, Persians, and Chaldeans.

Egypt was invaded by the Persians in 525 B.C.E., and the first Persian ruler was Cambyses. A revolt broke out after he died, but Darius the Great was able to regain control by 518 B.C.E.and Egypt remained a Persian satrapy until 404 B.C.E.when a brief period of independence lasted until 342 B.C.E. Egypt fell under Persian rule again, that was only ended by the arrival of Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.E.

Ptolemaic Period - 332-30 B.C.E.

 Taposiris Magna - Pylons of the Temple of Osiris. Roland Unger

The Ptolemaic period began with the arrival of Alexander the Great, who conquered Egypt and was crowned king in 332 B.C.E., but he left Egypt to conquer new lands. After he died in 323 B.C.E., sections of his great empire were parcelled out to various members of his military staff, and Ptolemy, the son of Alexander's marshall Lagos, acquired Egypt, Libya, and parts of Arabia. Between 301-280 B.C.E., a War of Successors broke out between the various marshalls of Alexander's conquered lands.

At the end of that, the Ptolemaic dynasties were firmly established and ruled over Egypt until the Roman conquest by Julius Caesar in 30 B.C.E..

Post-Dynastic Egypt - 30 B.C.E.-641 C.E.

 Roman Period Footcase of a Mummy with Images of Defeated Enemies Under the Feet, part of the Brooklyn Museum's exhibition of Egytpian artifacts called To Live Forever, February 12-May 2, 2010. © Brooklyn Museum

After the Ptolemaic period, Egypt's long religious and political structure ended. But the Egyptian legacy of massive monuments and a lively written history continues to fascinate us today.

•            Roman Period 30 B.C.E.-395 C.E.

•            Coptic period in the 3rd C.E.

•            Egypt ruled from Byzantium 395-641 C.E.

•            Arab Conquest of Egypt 641 C.E.

This article in it's entirety is to be found in "ThoughtCo" Lifelong learning magazine, some additions of dates and names are from my research.